Table 4

Effects of economic characteristics on the ecological footprints and CO₂ emissions

	Sub-Saharan Africa (N=675)		Latin America (N=297)		Others (N=525)
Variables	Ecological footprints	CO₂	Ecological footprints	CO₂	Ecological footprints	CO₂
Economic variables
Debt (%)	0.00001†	−0.0002	−0.0002	−0.0001	−0.0004	−0.002*
Debt (%)	(0.0001)	(0.0002)	(0.0001)	(0.0002)	(0.0005)	(0.0004)
Export to high-income countries (%)	0.0003	0.0001	0.0006	0.0008	−0.003*	0.0001
Export to high-income countries (%)	(0.0003)	(0.0008)	(0.0006)	(0.0009)	(0.0008)	(0.0007)
Manufacturing activities (%)	−0.003	0.006	0.0003	−0.0001	0.001	0.002
Manufacturing activities (%)	(0.002)	(0.005)	(0.003)	(0.004)	(0.001)	(0.001)
Export intensity (%)	−0.002*	0.004*	0.001	0.002	0.003*	0.003*
Export intensity (%)	(0.0007)	(0.002)	(0.0007)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)
Foreign investment (%)	−0.0005	0.0002	0.00002	−0.003*	0.002	0.0002
Foreign investment (%)	(0.0003)	(0.0008)	(0.0010)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.0008)
Demographic variables
Rural population (%)	−0.003	−0.036*	0.008	−0.008	−0.004*	−0.033*
Rural population (%)	(0.003)	(0.008)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.002)	(0.007)
Female education (%)	−0.0008	0.0008	0.002	0.002	0.003*	0.002
Female education (%)	(0.0006)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.002)	(0.001)	(0.001)
GDP per capita	0.00003*	0.0001*	0.0001*	0.0001*	0.0001*	0.0001*
GDP per capita	−0.00001	(0.00004)	−0.00002	(0.00002)	(0.00001)	(0.00002)
Democracy	0.0002	0.004	−0.001	−0.002	0.004	0.001
Democracy	(0.002)	(0.004)	(0.002)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)
Population growth	0.015*	0.009	−0.011	−0.132	0.008	−0.003
Population growth	(0.007)	(0.016)	(0.054)	(0.073)	(0.013)	(0.010)
1980s‡	0.029	−0.137*	0.030	0.026	−0.120*	0.042
1980s‡	(0.025)	(0.059)	(0.026)	(0.036)	(0.046)	(0.038)
1990s	0.025	−0.132*	0.019	0.012	−0.108*	0.047
1990s	(0.019)	(0.044)	(0.020)	(0.027)	(0.038)	(0.030)

*p<0.05.
†Regression coefficient.
‡Reference group: year >2000.
GDP, gross domestic product.