Table 4

Effects of economic characteristics on the ecological footprints and CO2 emissions

Sub-Saharan Africa (N=675)Latin America (N=297)Others (N=525)
VariablesEcological footprintsCO2Ecological footprintsCO2Ecological footprintsCO2
Economic variables
 Debt (%)0.00001†−0.0002−0.0002−0.0001−0.0004−0.002*
(0.0001)(0.0002)(0.0001)(0.0002)(0.0005)(0.0004)
 Export to high-income countries (%)0.00030.00010.00060.0008−0.003*0.0001
(0.0003)(0.0008)(0.0006)(0.0009)(0.0008)(0.0007)
 Manufacturing activities (%)−0.0030.0060.0003−0.00010.0010.002
(0.002)(0.005)(0.003)(0.004)(0.001)(0.001)
 Export intensity (%)−0.002*0.004*0.0010.0020.003*0.003*
(0.0007)(0.002)(0.0007)(0.001)(0.001)(0.001)
 Foreign investment (%)−0.00050.00020.00002−0.003*0.0020.0002
(0.0003)(0.0008)(0.0010)(0.001)(0.001)(0.0008)
Demographic variables
 Rural population (%)−0.003−0.036*0.008−0.008−0.004*−0.033*
(0.003)(0.008)(0.005)(0.007)(0.002)(0.007)
 Female education (%)−0.00080.00080.0020.0020.003*0.002
(0.0006)(0.001)(0.001)(0.002)(0.001)(0.001)
 GDP per capita0.00003*0.0001*0.0001*0.0001*0.0001*0.0001*
−0.00001(0.00004)−0.00002(0.00002)(0.00001)(0.00002)
 Democracy0.00020.004−0.001−0.0020.0040.001
(0.002)(0.004)(0.002)(0.003)(0.003)(0.003)
 Population growth0.015*0.009−0.011−0.1320.008−0.003
(0.007)(0.016)(0.054)(0.073)(0.013)(0.010)
 1980s‡0.029−0.137*0.0300.026−0.120*0.042
(0.025)(0.059)(0.026)(0.036)(0.046)(0.038)
 1990s0.025−0.132*0.0190.012−0.108*0.047
(0.019)(0.044)(0.020)(0.027)(0.038)(0.030)
  • *p<0.05.

  • †Regression coefficient.

  • ‡Reference group: year >2000.

  • GDP, gross domestic product.